If you have been reading about Semax and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-02-04. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Identity and purity are usually assessed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, with mass spectrometry used to confirm molecular mass and sequence information. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping may supplement these methods. Certified reference standards are scarce, and many commercial lots are sold as research chemicals without a pharmacopoeial monograph. Regulatory treatment differs by country: Selank is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while in the European Union and the United States it is not an approved drug and may fall under research-chemical or unapproved-product frameworks.
Selank is a hydrophilic peptide and dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers. The lyophilised powder is typically a white to off-white solid. Because short peptides are prone to hydrolysis and oxidation, handling benefits from limiting exposure to heat, moisture and strong light. Working solutions are commonly prepared in sterile water or saline, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided to reduce aggregation and loss of activity. These practices reflect general laboratory convention rather than published stability specifications.
Laboratory work relies on standard behavioral paradigms. Rodents are tested in the elevated plus maze, open field, and passive avoidance tasks, with outcomes compared against diazepam or vehicle controls. Intranasal dosing is used most often because it bypasses first-pass metabolism, though intraperitoneal and intravenous routes also appear in published protocols. Biochemical endpoints include tissue BDNF concentrations, cytokine levels, and monoamine metabolites. Human data are limited to small Russian trials reporting reduced anxiety scores; most were not prospectively registered, and few employed independent outcome assessment.
Measuring peptide exposure inside the brain is technically difficult. Selank is degraded rapidly in plasma, and assays must separate intact peptide from fragments, which favors targeted mass spectrometry over immunoassays alone. Reported half-lives are short, on the order of minutes, so effects observed hours later are attributed to downstream signaling rather than to the parent compound. Blood-brain barrier permeability is debated and rarely quantified directly. Gaps include absent dose-response characterization, inconsistent reporting of purity, and almost no pharmacokinetic data from human participants.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilised solid form |
| Solubility class | Freely soluble in water | Hydrophilic heptapeptide |
| Dry storage temperature | -20 degrees Celsius or lower | Sealed, desiccated, protected from light |
| Solution storage | 2 to 8 degrees Celsius short term | Avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles |
| Common identification method | Reversed-phase HPLC with mass spectrometry | Confirms purity and molecular mass |
Solubility behavior is a practical concern for handling. Selank dissolves readily in water and in common aqueous buffers, which simplifies preparation of working solutions. The choice of solvent, ionic strength, and pH can influence aggregation over time, particularly at higher concentrations. Aqueous solutions are typically sterile-filtered before use. Because stability depends on several variables, storage and handling notes should be treated as general guidance rather than fixed rules, and specific values are best confirmed against a certificate of analysis for each batch.
Characterization of Selank in a laboratory setting relies on standard peptide methods. Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography separates the target from related impurities and provides a purity figure, commonly reported as 95 percent or higher. Mass spectrometry, typically electrospray ionization or matrix-assisted laser desorption, confirms the molecular mass and helps detect truncation or modification. Amino acid analysis can verify composition when a sequence-level check is needed. These techniques together establish identity and purity for a given lot.
The primary structure of Selank is Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, corresponding to the molecular formula C33H57N11O9 and a monoisotopic mass of roughly 751.9 daltons. The N-terminal threonine and the arginine residue in the fourth position are shared with tuftsin, which carries the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg. The three additional residues at the C-terminus, Pro-Gly-Pro, extend the chain and are associated with greater resistance to enzymatic degradation. This extension also separates Selank from the shorter parent peptide.
Naming conventions place Selank in the same research family as Semax, another Russian-developed peptide investigated for cognitive effects. The two compounds share a lineage but differ in sequence and in the biological systems proposed as their targets. Semax descends from ACTH fragments, whereas Selank descends from tuftsin. Publications sometimes identify Selank by its full peptide sequence or by laboratory codes rather than one uniform trade name. Because replication outside Russia is limited, reports on its properties are best read alongside the study design and the purity of the material tested.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, frequently abbreviated as TKPRPGP. It was designed as a structural analogue of tuftsin, a naturally occurring tetrapeptide released by enzymatic cleavage of the immunoglobulin heavy chain. The two additional proline residues at the C-terminal end extend the parent chain and change how the molecule behaves in solution. The free peptide has a calculated molecular mass of approximately 751.9 g/mol and is generally supplied as a lyophilised white to off-white powder.
Development work on the compound began in the 1980s and 1990s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, within the same research programme that produced the peptide Semax. Early investigators sought a tuftsin derivative with improved resistance to enzymatic breakdown and with activity in the central nervous system after peripheral administration. Most of the primary literature from this period was published in Russian, a factor that still shapes how easily the findings can be checked by outside groups.
Pharmacokinetic data are sparse and largely derived from animal work. After intranasal administration the peptide appears in plasma within minutes, and reported half-lives are short, on the order of minutes to tens of minutes. Degradation proceeds through ordinary proteolytic cleavage into constituent amino acids and smaller fragments. Direct evidence that intact Selank reaches brain tissue in meaningful amounts is limited, and the extent of blood-brain barrier penetration is debated. Some authors argue that fragments, not the parent peptide, carry much of the observed activity.
Published clinical work is concentrated in Russian-language journals and generally involves small samples without independent replication. Systematic reviews in English note the shortage of randomised, placebo-controlled trials and the difficulty of verifying methods from translated reports. Outcome measures vary between studies, which complicates pooling of results. Interest in the compound as a cognitive or anxiolytic agent therefore rests on a thinner evidence base than the volume of citations suggests. Replication in well-powered trials with preregistered endpoints would be needed before firm conclusions about efficacy can be drawn.
Proposed mechanisms centre on the GABAergic system. Animal and tissue studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and reduced activity of GABA transaminase, the enzyme that degrades GABA. Effects on monoamine turnover, including serotonin and dopamine pathways, are also described, and a separate line of work links the peptide to increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in hippocampal tissue. Most of these findings come from rodent models and cell preparations. How the individual observations combine into a single coherent mode of action is not settled.
=== First treatment === The recommended first treatment is a four- to six-week course combining stretching, foot taping (using a special tape around the foot for supporting the arch) and individually tailored education on footwear and other management options. Reduction in pain and stress involve strengthening foot muscles that support the arches through barefoot exercising, without footwear, compared to exercising in common footwear. Supportive insoles are a common conservative treatment. Insoles that provide arch support and cushioning may reduce strain on the plantar fascia by improving foot alignment and distributing plantar pressure more evenly during standing and walking. This reduction can help alleviate discomfort, particularly in individuals who engage in prolonged standing or repetitive weight-bearing activities.
== Lipid storage == Lipids are stored in white adipose tissue as triglycerides. In a lean young adult human, the mass of triglycerides stored represents about 10–20 kilograms. Triglycerides are formed from a backbone of glycerol with three fatty acids. Free fatty acids are activated into acyl-CoA and esterified to finally reach the triglyceride droplet. Lipoprotein lipase has an important role.
The Parliament of Barbados is the legislative branch of the government of Barbados. It is a bicameral body, composed of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Assembly. The Senate (upper house), the direct successor of a pre-Independence body known as the "Legislative Council"—comprises 21 senators appointed by the president. The President appoints 12 Senators on the advice of the Prime Minister and two on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. The remaining seven Senators are nominated by the President at their discretion (that is, the President is not bound by other political leaders' advice in these appointments) to represent various religious, social, economic, or other interests in Barbados. In the absence of an opposition leader in parliament (i.e. in the case of a landslide victory where one party takes all 30 seats in the House of Assembly, as occurred in 2018 and 2022) the president will then appoint the remaining two senators in the opposition's stead allowing for 9 independents instead. The House of Assembly (lower house) is made up of 30 members of Parliament, elected to five-year terms on a first-past-the-post basis in single-seat constituencies.
The aorta is the root systemic artery (i.e., main artery). In humans, it receives blood directly from the left ventricle of the heart via the aortic valve. As the aorta branches and these arteries branch, in turn, they become successively smaller in diameter, down to the arterioles. The arterioles supply capillaries, which in turn empty into venules. The first branches off of the aorta are the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart muscle itself. These are followed by the branches of the aortic arch, namely the brachiocephalic artery, the left common carotid, and the left subclavian arteries.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
21 July to 25 September The 3rd Marine Division and elements of the 1st Brigade, 5th Infantry Division launch Operation Idaho Canyon in north-central Quảng Trị Province. The operation results in 563 PAVN killed.
=== Other conditions === Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked disorder caused by defective production of dystrophin. Many jurisdictions around the world have screened for, or attempted to screen for DMD using elevated levels of creatine kinase measured in dried blood spots. Because universal newborn screening for DMD has not been undertaken, affected individuals often have a significant delay in diagnosis. As treatment options for DMD become more and more effective, interest in adding a newborn screening test increases. At various times since 1978, DMD has been included (often as a pilot study on a small subset of the population) in newborn screening programs in Edinburgh, Germany, Canada, France, Wales, Cyprus, Belgium and the United States. In 2012, Belgium was the only country that continued to screen for DMD using creatine kinase levels. As treatments improve, newborn screening becomes a possibility for disorders that could benefit from early intervention, but none was previously available. Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD), a peroxisomal disease that has a variable clinical presentation is one of the disorders that has become a target for those seeking to identify patients early. ALD can present in several different forms, some of which do not present until adulthood, making it a difficult choice for countries to add to screening programs. The most successful treatment option is a stem cell transplant, a procedure that carries a significant risk.
==== Pentavalent vaccine ==== Gavi spent 15 years (2005–2020) with a program for shaping the pentavalent vaccine market to be more stable and competitive. The vaccine price fell with increased competition, and price discrimination declined. Whether Gavi met quantitative goals will be assessed in 2020.
=== Production and fermentation === First, raw milk (either from cattle, goats or sheep) is mixed and pasteurized at 72 °C (162 °F) for 15 seconds. Then, acidification occurs: a starter culture, such as Streptococcus lactis, is added in order to change lactose to lactic acid, thus changing the acidity of the milk and turning it from liquid to solid. The next step is coagulation, where rennet, a mixture of rennin and other materials found in the stomach lining of a calf is added to solidify the milk further. Following this, thick curds are cut typically with a knife to encourage the release of liquid or whey. The smaller the curds are cut, the thicker and harder the resulting cheese will become. After the curds have been ladled into containers in order to be drained and formed into a full wheel of cheese, the Penicillium roqueforti inoculum is sprinkled on top of the curds along with Brevibacterium linens. Then, the curd granules are knit in molds to form cheese loaves with a relatively open texture. Next, whey drainage continues for 10–48 hours in which no pressure is applied, but the molds are inverted frequently to promote this process. Salt is then added to provide flavor as well as to act as a preservative so the cheese does not spoil through the process of brine salting or dry salting for 24–48 hours. The final step is ripening the cheese by aging it. When the cheese is freshly made, there is little to no blue cheese flavor development. Usually, a fermentation period of 60–90 days is needed before the flavor of the cheese is typical and acceptable for marketing.
There were a few similar spark discharge experiments contemporaneous with Miller–Urey. An article in The New York Times (March 8, 1953) titled "Looking Back Two Billion Years" describes the work of Wollman M. MacNevin at Ohio State University, before the Miller Science paper was published in May 1953. MacNevin was passing 100,000V sparks through methane and water vapor and produced "resinous solids" that were "too complex for analysis." Furthermore, K. A. Wilde submitted a manuscript to Science on December 15, 1952, before Miller submitted his paper to the same journal in February 1953. Wilde's work, published on July 10, 1953, used voltages up to only 600V on a binary mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water in a flow system and did not note any significant reduction products. According to some, the reports of these experiments explain why Urey was rushing Miller's manuscript through Science and threatening to submit to the Journal of the American Chemical Society. By introducing an experimental framework to test prebiotic chemistry, the Miller–Urey experiment paved the way for future origin of life research. In 1961, Joan Oró produced milligrams of the nucleobase adenine from a concentrated solution of HCN and NH3 in water. Oró found that several amino acids were also formed from HCN and ammonia under those conditions. Experiments conducted later showed that the other RNA and DNA nucleobases could be obtained through simulated prebiotic chemistry with a reducing atmosphere.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Personal life == In August 2009, it was reported that Lovett-Murray's home had been raided by police on 3 August. He was charged with possession of a drug of dependency, after the search found a single tablet of ecstasy at his home. However, on 11 December it was reported that the drug charge against him had been dismissed. On 22 May 2013, he was stabbed in a domestic incident by a girl's boyfriend and hospitalised. Lovett-Murray belongs to a sporting family and is the great-grandson of pastor Sir Douglas Nicholls, who played for Fitzroy Football Club. In addition, he is the cousin of former Essendon Football Club player Andrew Lovett.
== Methods of preparation == Various methods used to prepare liposomes are also suitable for niosome preparation, such as the ether injection method, the handshaking method, the reverse phase evaporation method, the trans-membrane pH gradient method, the "bubble" method, the microfluidization method, formation from proteasomes, the thin-film hydration method, the heating method, the freeze and thaw method, and the dehydration-rehydration method.
===== Polycondensation ===== Polycondensation involves the formation of polymers through condensation reactions between different species, creating condensation polymers. With automated synthesis, General electric manufactured an approach for melt-polymerizations of BPA and diphenyl carbonate (DPC), using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as the catalyst. Once the results were analyzed, it was shown that, by using an automated method of polymerization, the effect of varying the catalyst amount became more distinct and improved the reproducibility for the reaction. Furthermore, it demonstrated an increase within the homogeneity of the polymers in the microreactors.
=== Clothing and cosmetics === In July 2012, Collins launched her debut plus-size clothing collection online, ranging from sizes 16 to 22. Collins drew on her own experiences of struggling to find flattering and fashionable clothing in larger sizes and said she was "so happy to be able to offer bigger girls a clothing range that they can show their curves off in." In December 2012, Collins attended the Clothes Show Live at the National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham where she had her own stall featuring pieces from her collection that consumers could purchase. She returned to the exhibition the following year and won the award for "Best Designer" at the British Plus Size Awards in 2013. She also teamed up with fashion brand Simply Be to launch her own collection which included a range of bright prints, dresses and jackets, and opened the branches of the store at Highcross Leicester and MetroCentre in Gateshead, cutting the ribbon at the respective launch parties. A year later, Collins opened her own clothing boutique in Brentwood, Essex. She subsequently moved the Gemma Collins Boutique to a different area of Brentwood in November 2014, before returning to the previous location, albeit in a different building, in June 2017. In April 2015, Collins launched her fashion range with women's clothing retailer Evans. In November 2017, Collins collaborated with fashion website Boohoo.com to release a clothing range aimed at plus-sized women. The following year, she went on to release a collection of swimwear with the retailer.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Dry powder is normally held at -20 degrees Celsius or below in a sealed, light-protected container with desiccant. Brief room-temperature handling during weighing is generally tolerated. Storage instructions vary between suppliers, so the accompanying certificate of analysis should be followed.
Reversed-phase HPLC establishes purity, while mass spectrometry confirms the expected molecular mass. Sequence confirmation may use tandem mass spectrometry or peptide mapping. A certificate of analysis typically reports these results alongside the analytical method applied.
In Russia it is a registered medicine available by prescription. In many other countries it is not approved for human use and is supplied only as a research chemical. Import and possession rules differ by jurisdiction, and buyers are responsible for checking local requirements.
Intranasal administration predominates in both animal and human research because it avoids hepatic first-pass metabolism. Injectable and intraperitoneal routes appear in animal work mainly for comparison.